General Distribution
Arboreal salamander reportedly occurs in the foothills and lower elevations of every mountain range on
National Forest System lands, although it is seldom seen (Stephenson and Calcarone 1999). There are
records of occurrence for this species on the Los Padres National Forest near upper San Juan Creek and
on the Cleveland National Forest near Soldier Creek (USDA Forest Service file information), San
Gabriel foothills east to Day Canyon, and in the San Jacinto Mountains (Goodward pers. comm.). Systematics
There are four species in the genus Aneides in the western United States, three of which occur in
California (Stebbins 1985). Of these three, only arboreal salamander ranges into southern California.
Most of the Aneides salamanders climb (Stebbins 1985). Arboreal salamander consists of two
chromosomally differentiated groups that intergrade in south and east-central Mendocino County, about
56 miles (90 kilometers) north of the San Francisco Bay region (Sessions and Kezer 1987). Habitat Requirements
Arboreal salamanders are typically found in coast live oak and interior live oak woodlands, but can also
occur at the edges of moister areas, such coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) communities, or near
drier areas such as coastal and montane chaparral (Rosenthal 1957). In the Sierra Nevada, the species
has been found in yellow pine and black oak forests (Stebbins 1985).
In southern California it has been also observed in sycamore-dominated riparian and chaparral habitats
(Stephenson and Calcarone 1999).
These salamanders occur beneath rocks, boards, logs, and other surface objects when the surface is
damp. Arboreal salamanders have also been found inside decaying logs and stumps, in rock walls, mine
shafts, damp cellars, rodent burrows, and in woodrat houses (Stebbins 1951). Leaf litter and downed
logs are believed to be important habitat elements for this species (Stephenson and Calcarone 1999). Reproduction
Arboreal salamanders breed during the summer months (Storer 1925), but other data on breeding are not
available and courtship behavior has not been described (Petranka 1998). Eggs are laid in July and
August during the dry season (Storer 1925) beneath surface objects, in subterranean niches, or in tree
cavities (Stebbins 1951).
Females, or perhaps both sexes, guard the eggs. Presumably, the adult keeps the eggs moist with body
fluids. This attention seems necessary because in captivity, removal of the adult resulted in the
appearance of mold or spoilage of the eggs. Guarding the eggs may also protect them from predation.
Eggs hatch in August or September, and young salamanders first appear on the surface sometime after
the first fall or winter rains (Stebbins 1951). Daily/Seasonal Activity
Arboreal salamanders are nocturnal and live both on the ground and in trees (Storer 1925). This species
is active on the ground surface during the rainy season and shortly after it, when soil moisture is high
(Petranka 1998). Individuals near Berkeley, California, are active November through early May
(Rosenthal 1957). These salamanders are more tolerant of dry conditions than other salamanders and
are frequently found several months after other salamander species have gone underground for the
summer (Cohen 1952, Ray 1958). Individuals may also move into tree cavities when conditions become
dry (i.e., during the breeding season) (Petranka 1998, Storer 1925). Diet and Foraging
The primary food of arboreal salamanders is invertebrates. Beetles, caterpillars, sow bugs, centipedes,
and ants were the major components in the stomachs of 13 arboreal salamanders from the Santa Monica
Mountains (Zweifel 1949). Millipedes, beetles, termites, hymenopterans, flies, and collembolans were
found in the stomachs of 157 individuals in northwestern California (Lynch 1985). Worms and snails
are also eaten (Bury and Martin 1973). This species may use its large saber-like teeth and stout jaw
muscles to scrape and bite off fungus from the walls of tree cavities (Miller 1944, Stebbins 1951, Storer
1925). Fungi may serve as a reserve food supply (Storer 1925). Territoriality/Home Range
Adult arboreal salamanders appear to be territorial during certain times of the year, defending resources
by biting or using agonistic displays (Staub 1993). About 15 percent of the field-caught specimens
during Staub's 1993 study had scars that were assumed to be from aggressive encounters between
arboreal salamanders. Males and females had the same proportion of scars. Arboreal salamanders have
been found long distances (300 feet) (91 meters) from trees or leafy debris (Cohen 1952). Predator-Prey Relations
Western terrestrial garter snakes (Thamnophis elegans) are thought to be predators of arboreal
salamanders (Petranka 1998). When these salamanders are disturbed, they may emit a mouse-like
squeak (Stebbins 1951). Biting is used as an anti-predator defense as evidenced by humans being bit
while attempting to handle them (Storer 1925). Arboreal salamanders have been reported to
occasionally prey upon Batrachoseps salamander species (Miller 1944). Literature Cited
Bury, R.B.; Martin, M. 1973. Comparative studies on the distribution and foods of plethodontid
salamanders in the redwood region of northern California. Journal of Herpetology 7: 331-335.
Cohen, N.W. 1952. Comparative rates of dehydration and hydration in some California salamanders.
Ecology 33: 462-479.
Lynch, J.F. 1985. The feeding ecology of Aneides flavipunctatus and sympatric plethodontid
salamanders in northwestern California. Journal of Herpetology 19: 328-352.
Maiorana, V.C. 1978. Differences in diet as an epiphenomenon: Space regulates salamanders. Canadian
Journal of Zoology 56: 1017-1025.
Miller, L. 1944. Notes on the eggs and larvae of Enya Aneides lugubris. Copeia 1944: 224-230.
Petranka, J.W. 1998. Salamanders of the United States and Canada. Washington and
London: Smithsonian Institution and Press.
Ray, C. 1958. Vital limits and rates of desiccation in salamanders. Ecology 39: 75-83.?Rosenthal, G.M. 1957. The role of moisture and temperature in the local distribution of the plethodontid
salamander Aneides lugubris. University of California Publications in Zoology 54: 371-420.
Sessions, S.K.; Kezer, J. 1987. Cytogenic evolution in the plethodontid genus Aneides. Chromosoma 95:
17-30.
Staub, N.L. 1993. Intraspecific agonistic behavior of the salamander Aneides flavipunctatus (Amphibia:
Plethodontidae) with comparisons to other plethodontid species. Herpetologica 49: 271-282.
Stebbins, R.C. 1951. Amphibians of western North America. Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press.
Stebbins, R.C. 1985. A field guide to western reptiles and amphibians. 2d ed., revised. Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company.
Stephenson, J.R.; Calcarone, G.M. 1999. Southern California mountains and foothills assessment:
Habitat and species conservation issues. General Technical Report PSW-GTR-172. Albany, CA: Pacific
Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Storer, T.I. 1925. A synopsis of the amphibia of California. University of California Publications in
Zoology 27: 1-342.
Zweifel, R.G. 1949. Comparison of food habits of Ensatina eschscholtzii and Aneides lugubris. Copeia
1949: 285-287.
Personal Communications
Wake, D., Professor of Herpetology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California
at Berkeley. [Comment submitted to the USDA Forest Service Southern Province Forest Plan Revision
species information peer review web site].
Goodward, Dave, Contract Biologist and Environmental Education Instructor. Grand Terrace,
California. 909-783-2417. 20 June 2003.
Information gathered from California DFG - California Interagency Wildlife Task Group
