General Distribution
Large-blotched salamanders are known to occur in the mountains on the Cleveland National Forest (i.e.,
Laguna, Cuyamaca, Volcan, Palomar, and Hot Springs) and in the San Jacinto Mountains and San
Bernardino Mountains (see discussion above) on the San Bernardino National Forest (Stephenson and
Calcarone 1999). Systematics
Ensatina is a geographically and genetically variable taxon that has traditionally been treated as a single
species with seven recognized subspecies. The subspecies include both blotched and unblotched color
forms. Ensatina has also traditionally been treated as a "ring" species, whose subspecies form a ring-shaped
distribution around the Central Valley of California and do not interbreed where the ends of the ring overlap
in Southern California (Wake and Yanev 1986). Habitat Requirements
Large-blotched salamanders occur in woodlands dominated by canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis)
and Coulter pine (Pinus coulteri), in coniferous forests dominated by other yellow pines (Pinus sp.) and
incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), and California scrub habitats containing oak, toyon (Heteromeles
arbutifolia), and buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum) (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Colonies of
Ensatina salamanders seem best developed in marginal belts between dense and sparse vegetation that
is, in "edge" situations (Stebbins 1951). Downed logs, leaf litter, and woody debris appear to be
important habitat elements (Stebbins 1951).
Populations of Ensatina in drier regions of southern California primarily occur on north-facing slopes of
deep canyons and in other microhabitats that provide, cool, moist conditions. Ensatina are frequently
found near streams where soils are relatively moist, or in shaded, moist habitats where there is good
canopy cover (Stebbins 1945, 1951). Reproduction
If large-blotched salamanders conform to the patterns of other Ensatina salamanders, mating occurs in
February and March. The male and female perform a complex mating ritual that results in the female
picking up a spermatophore (Stebbins 1951). Females oviposit in late spring in central and southern
coastal populations, and in early summer in northern coastal areas (Norman 1986) and higher elevation
sites in the Sierra Nevada (Stebbins 1951). Each female lays a single cluster of eggs in an underground
passage, beneath bark, or in or beneath logs. The female stays with the eggs, protecting them from
drying and from other animals. The young hatch in the fall and must soon fend for themselves (Stebbins
1959). Daily/Seasonal Activity
The species is nocturnal and difficult to see near the surface, so it could be more widespread than current
data suggest. Juveniles and adults are most active when the ground is wet and temperatures are
moderate (Stebbins 1951, Storer 1925). Ensatina remain underground throughout the dry summer in
most areas of their range and can tolerate substantial dehydration (Stebbins 1945). During dry weather,
they tend to frequent holes in the ground such as rodent burrows, rotted-out root channels, and openings
among rocks (Stebbins 1951). Except in areas where severe winter weather occurs, Ensatina emerge
with the first rains of autumn and are active on the ground through spring. Surface activity is highest
immediately following rains and continues while temperature and moisture conditions are favorable
(Stebbins 1951). Ensatina are commonly found in areas with considerable leaf litter. This litter serves
as an insulating blanket to help conserve moisture and to buffer temperature fluctuations (Stebbins 1951). Diet and Foraging
Insects, spiders, crustaceans, and earthworms that occur in and beneath the leaf litter serve as food for
these salamanders. Most feeding occurs above ground when the surface is damp and temperatures are
not too high (Stebbins 1951). The principle prey items of 45 specimens from southern California were
isopods, centipedes, spiders, collembolans, and beetles (Zweifel 1949). Predator-Prey Relations
Garter snakes (Thamnophis sp.) and Steller's jays (Cyanositta stelleri) prey upon Ensatina (Beneski
1989). Snakes often gape repeatedly after eating or attempting to eat Ensatina, a behavior suggesting
that the tail secretions are distasteful and serve to repel potential predators (Storer 1925). Literature Cited
Stebbins, R.C. 1945. Water absorption in a terrestrial salamander. Copeia 1945: 25-28.
Stebbins, R.C. 1951. Amphibians of western North America. Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press.
Stebbins, R.C. 1959. Reptiles and amphibians of the San Francisco Bay region. Berkeley and Los
Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
Stebbins, R.C.; Cohen, N.W. 1995. A natural history of amphibians. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press.
Stephenson, J.R.; Calcarone, G.M. 1999. Southern California mountains and foothills?assessment: Habitat and species conservation issues. General Technical Report GTR-PSW-172. Albany,
CA: Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture .
Storer, T.I. 1925. A synopsis of the amphibia of California. University of California Publications in
Zoology 27: 1-342.
Wake, D.B.; Schneider, C.J. 1998. Taxonomy of the plethodontid salamander genus
Ensatina. Herpetologica 54: 279–298.
Wake, D.B.; Yanev, K.P. 1986. Geographic variation in allozymes in a "ring species," the plethodontid
salamander Ensatina eschscholtzii of western North America. Evolution 40: 702-715.
Zweifel, R.G. 1949. Comparison of food habits of Ensatina eschscholtzii and Aneides lugubris. Copeia
1949: 285-287.
Information gathered from California DFG - California Interagency Wildlife Task Group
