General Distribution
Historically, elk (Cervus elaphus) inhabited most of the United States except for the Great Basin, the
Mojave and Sonora Deserts of the southwest, and the southeastern United States (Peek 1982). The
present range of elk is mostly restricted to the western United States in large forest and range areas
(Point Reyes National Seashore 1998).
Tule elk were once abundant along California's Central Valley east to the Sierra Nevada foothills and
west to the Pacific coast (McCullough and others 1996). However, the fertile valley habitats they
preferred have been almost entirely converted to agricultural land, and the taxon now occurs only in
established reserves and in areas outside or on the fringe of its native range where introduced
populations have persisted (e.g., the Owens Valley and Point Reyes) (McCullough and others 1996).
Three known populations of tule elk occur on and adjacent to the Los Padres National Forest in San Luis
Obispo and Monterey Counties (McCullough and others 1996). Tule elk herds inhabit Fort Hunter
Liggett on the northeastern side of the Santa Lucia Range in southern Monterey County, and Camp
Roberts Military Base near the Salinas River at the Monterey/San Luis Obispo County Line. The
primary population of tule elk on the Los Padres National Forest is the Pozo-La Panza herd, which
occurs from the vicinity of Pine Canyon east along Highway 166 to the Carrizo Plain and Highway 33.
Systematics
Six subspecies of elk are recognized in North America: Rocky Mountain elk (C. e. nelsoni), Manitoba
elk (C. e. manitobensis), Roosevelt elk (C. e. roosevelti), tule elk, eastern elk (C. e. canadensis), and
Merriam's elk (C. e. merriami). C. e. canadensis and C. e. merriami are extinct (Peek 1982).
The range of Roosevelt elk extends into the northwestern portion of California, and Rocky Mountain elk
extends into the extreme northeast portion. Tule elk is endemic to California and occurs in scattered
populations throughout the upper three-quarters of the state. Morphological characteristics that
distinguish tule elk from Rocky Mountain and Roosevelt elk include light and spreading antlers with
curved branches, lighter pelage, a short and broad skull, and the longest tooth row (Peek 1982). Habitat Requirements
Tule elk prefer open habitats and use marshy or ephemerally flooded areas that provide high quality
forage (McCullough and others 1996). Historically, tule elk inhabited brushy habitats on gently sloping
foothills of southern California during favorable plant growth periods. Most calves were born in those
areas in March and April; tall brush provides important cover for newborn calves (Peek 1982). By
summer, elk returned to forage on herbaceous vegetation in the bottomlands where they remained for
most of the year (McCullough and others 1996). This pattern still occurs in some of the larger areas
where elk can make seasonal movements. However, agricultural crops such as alfalfa are now often
utilized in place of vegetation found in marshy bottomlands (McCullough and others 1996). Reproduction
Tule elk are polygamous: the dominant male forms harems and mates with several females (Point Reyes
National Seashore 1998). Although dominant males are usually 4–8 years of age (Point Reyes National
Seashore 1998), yearling males can be sexually mature and contribute substantially to breeding when
adult males are absent or greatly reduced (Peek 1982). Typically, only 15-20 percent of males in a given
population breed, whereas 90 percent of females breed (Point Reyes National Seashore 1998).
At Point Reyes National Seashore, the breeding (rutting) season occurs July–September and young are
born March–May. Females usually produce one calf; twins are rare. Calving generally occurs in areas
with brushy vegetation that provides dense cover and where there is little human activity (Zeiner and
others 1990). Calves hide under this cover for the first 18–20 days after they are born (Peek 1982). Daily/Seasonal Activity
Tule elk are active yearlong. They are mostly crepuscular (active in the early morning and at dusk) and
nocturnal but may occasionally be active during the day (Zeiner and others 1990).
Although elk are capable of surpassing 20 years of age, the average life expectancy is generally 8–12
years (Point Reyes National Seashore 1998, Quimby and Gaab 1957).
Elk in some regions of the United States migrate up to 55 miles (88 kilometers) between their winter and
summer ranges (Peek 1982). Present populations of tule elk in California are essentially nonmigratory;
however, tule elk in southern California are known to make seasonal altitudinal movements in search of
optimal foraging areas (McCullough and others 1996). Diet and Foraging
Tule elk are considered mixed grazers and browsers (Point Reyes National Seashore 1998). They eat a
variety of grasses, herbs, woody shrubs, and trees and forage in riparian areas, meadows, and forest
openings (Zeiner and others 1990). Common food plants include cheat grass (Bromus tectorum), red
brome (Bromus rubens), wild licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota), globe mallow (Sphaerala ambigua),
lupines (Lupinus spp.), plantain (Plantago spp.), miner's lettuce (Montia perfoliata), willows (Salix
spp.), and coyote bush (Baccharis pilularis) (McCullough 1969, Point Reyes National Seashore 1998).
Seasonal variations in the composition of the diet reflect the availability and abundance of forage (Peek
1982). Territoriality/Home Range
Nonmigratory tule elk use year-round home ranges that can be highly variable in size. Home range size
is probably correlated with the productivity of the habitat, which may be influenced by soil types,
climate, vegetation composition, and numerous other factors (Point Reyes National Seashore 1998). At
Point Reyes, tule elk home ranges were estimated at 3–10 acres (1.21–4.04 hectares). Franklin and
others (1975) reported that territories of cow-calf herds of Roosevelt elk in Humboldt County averaged
185 acres (75 hectares). Males and females tend to occupy separate areas within their range (Peek and
Lovaas 1968). Adult females, calves, and subadults frequently use the center of the range, while adult
males occupy the fringes. Predator-Prey Relations
In California, tule elk have very few natural predators. Mountain lion is the primary predator of this
species, and coyotes have been reported to capture newborn and young. Grizzly bears, prior to their
extirpation in California, were also known to prey on tule elk (Point Reyes National Seashore 1998). Literature Cited
California Department of Fish and Game (Ed.). 2000. Commission adopts mammal regulations. News
release. Sacramento, CA. [Homepage of California Department of Fish and Game], [Online]. Available:
http://www.dfg.ca.gov/news/news00/00026.html.
Callifornia Department of Fish and Game. 2001. 30 tule elk captured during high-tech roundup. News
release. Sacramento, CA. [Homepage of California Department of Fish and Game], [Online]. Available:
http://www.dfg.ca.gov/news/news01/01014.html.
Franklin, W.L.; Mossman, A.S; Dole, M. 1975. Social organization and home range of Roosevelt
elk. Journal of Mammalogy 56: 102–118.
Hall, E.R. 1981. The mammals of North America. 2d ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
McCullough, D.R. 1969. The tule elk: Its history, behavior, and ecology. University of California Press
88: 1–209.
McCullough, D.R.; Ballou, J.D.; Fischer, J.K. 1996. From bottleneck to metapopulation: Recovery of the
tule elk in California. In: McCullough, D.R., ed. Metapopulations and wildlife conservation. Covelo,
CA: Island Press.
Peek, J.M. 1982. Elk (Cervus elaphus). In: Chapman, J.A.; Feldhamer, G.A., eds. Wild mammals of
North America: Biology, management, and economics. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Peek, J. M.; Lovaas, A.L. 1968. Differential distribution of elk by sex and age on the Gallatin winter
range, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 32(3): 553–557.
Point Reyes National Seashore. 1998. Tule elk management plan and environmental assessment. Point
Reyes, CA: National Park Service publication.
Quimby, D.C.; Gaab, J.E. 1957. Mandibular dentition as an age indicator in Rocky Mountain
elk. Journal of Wildlife Management 15(1): 57–62.
Zeiner, D.C.; Laudenslayer, W.F., Jr.; Meyer, K.E.; White, M., eds. 1990. California's wildlife. Volume
III: Mammals. California statewide wildlife habitat relationships system. Sacramento, CA: California
Department of Fish and Game.
Information gathered from California DFG - California Interagency Wildlife Task Group
